11.Feb 2013年

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脉冲电源开关设备– An Overview
By John Pasley
24/9/96
Copyright John Pasley 1996. This document may be freely distributed via. Any means in part or in whole, however the authors name must be included and correctly attributed.
还必须包含所列出的参考文献和免责声明。

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1。0: Introduction

在进入审议我们关注的各个设备之前，也可以解释一些相关技术/术语。

1。1Switching basics and terminology

The switch is possibly the most elementary device in the field of electronics. A switch controls the flow of current in a circuit in a manner such that either the current flows at a value determined by the other components in series with it, or does not flow at all, as the case may be. However this ideal behavior is actually never exactly what is seen in real life. A switch has it’s own parameters that determine how fast it can switch from open to closed, or how rapidly it can interrupt the flow of current once it is has been opened. Also of course there are more elementary considerations such as the current handling capacity of the switch and the peak voltage it can cope with before damage or other unwanted effects occur.

机械开关等是常见的在家里are in actuality far from ideal in their behavior. The time taken to switch from off to on (the commutation time) is typically in the millisecond range. Also spurious effects such as bouncing may occur as the switch fluctuates rapidly from open to closed in the process of being physically manipulated by the operator.

Electromagnetic relays and reed switches experience similar problems to those seen in the humble light switch. Long commutation and switch bounce are standard features of virtually all mechanical switching devices.

随着晶体管的出现和诸如晶闸管的类似装置，可以认为这些缓慢的切换问题是过去的事情。这实际上是很大程度上。但是半导体以其他方式有限，很难找到能够切换数量多的半导体，特别是在千伏区域的电位上，以及可以管理诸如较大的晶闸管的高电流的装置被过度高的换向次数。虽然现在已经进入市场的半导体，但在电流和电压下的这些极端的市场上，甚至有一些要求将这些设备放在耻辱。如果您想在20kV依靠半导体技术将遇到麻烦的20公斤安培。然而，在谦逊的晶体管来到场景之前，存在一类左右的替代方案。您可能认为真空管和类似的是过去的东西。但是对于这种额度的问题，他们是市场上唯一会做这项工作的东西。

1。2 Vacuum and Gas filled switching tubes, introduction and terminology

There are a great many different types of vacuum tube in existence, however it is possible to group tubes according to some fairly basic criteria. There are two primary distinguishing features, the source of free electrons within the device and the gaseous filling (or lack of it) within the tube envelope. The later of these two concepts we have already introduced by implication. A vacuum tube is a device with a vacuum (very low pressure gas) filling. And a gas filled device is, as the name would suggest, filled with gas that might be at a pressure somewhat above or below atmospheric. The type of gas used is also an important feature, particularly in switching tubes where a wide variety of fillings are encountered.

The source of the free conduction electrons in the device may be either thermal such as a heated filament physically associated with the cathode of the device – a hot cathode, or alternatively a simple consequence of a high voltage gradient across the device, resulting in autoemission from the cathode. A device employing this latter method is known as a cold cathode device. In high voltage switching the presence of high voltages, and hence the possibility of large voltage gradients within devices means that the cold cathode system, quite a rarity in most other types of tubes, is the norm rather than the exception.

Other important terms encountered in gaseous state switching tubes:

Delay time

延迟时间是触发脉冲的应用与主电极之间的传导开始之间采取的时间。

Jitter

Jitter is the variation of time delay from shot to shot given similar electrical stimulus.

换向时间

The commutation time is the time taken for the conduction to reach maximum once it has commenced. (i.e. From the time from the end of the delay time to the time at which the maximum level of conduction occurs.)

应该指出的是，我们即将考虑的任何开关管都非常像旧收音机背面的东西。许多很大，一些特别之处。玻璃在大量给较高动力装置中主要给予陶瓷。Before you go down your local electronics shop or radio shack it should also be pointed out that many of these devices besides costing $100’s (often $1000’s) a piece, and are also largely unavailable to the general public due to their application in advanced missile and nuclear weapon technologies. Of these devices the most ‘everyday’ is the ignitron which finds much application in industrial welding situations.

The following devices are considered herein:

2.0 Vacuum and Gaseous State Switching devices

通过在气态介质中引导电弧处理来切换该部分中的大多数器件。我已经包含在触发的火花隙部分中，提到了实际使用液体材料的液体材料或固体替代品的设备，这是触发的火花间隙中的标准。

The process of arc formation is actually quite complex physically, and it will not be gone into in any depth. Anyone who wishes to look more deeply into this aspect of device operation may contact the author for some suggestions as to suitable text books for use in such study.

2.1 An Introduction to Cold Cathode Switching Tubes.

冷阴极触发管是物理小型器件，设计用于切换脉冲电流和相对较小振幅的电压。通常他们是目的，因为他们的名字表明，触发其他较大的设备。

通常，冷阴极触发管设计为切换几百伏特和几百毫安的脉冲。大多数触发管具有三个或四个电极，阳极，阴极（分别），触发/控制电极，有时是引发电极。

触发管以非常简单的方式执行，类似于触发的火花隙的这种情况，除了通常导通不是通过电弧而不是发光放电。当存在以下所有因素时，启动发光放电：

  • A sufficiently high voltage is present across the device(between anode and cathode)
  • 触发电极存在足够幅度的触发脉冲。
  • The gas in the tube is primed.

Cold cathode trigger tubes rely upon some external or internal source to ionize the gas suitably for conduction to commence (This is called priming). This means that in theory some of these tubes will only switch a minute or so after the application of a suitable triggering voltage to the appropriate terminal of the device when some natural source of ionizing radiation ionizes the gas (forming a plasma) and hence causes conduction to commence.

The triggering is basically random- it is subject to huge statistical variation even in apparently similar environments. Some devices incorporate a suitably ionizing source to reduce the maximum possible time delay after trigger application considerably. This source may be an electronic, radioactive or photon source of some form or other. However even the standard commercial devices often display a large variation (up to and above an order of magnitude different) between devices fired in sunlight and darkness, a standard commercial tube Z900T for instance displays a 20us delay in day light and a 250us delay in darkness.

2.2 The Krytron

Krytrons are a highly specialized variety of cold cathode trigger tube. They were one of the first products developed by the US based company EG&G. The Krytron has 4 electrodes, and is filled with a gas at low pressure. A Krytron is distinguished among cold cathode trigger tubes for a variety of reasons.

Krytron设计用于在电弧放电模式下将适度的高脉冲电流（最多约3kA）和电压（最多约5kV）进行比较，并将其与标准触发管的常用放电进行比较。而且，也许更重要的是，克瑞隆能够非常迅速地开启该电弧放电，原因是它依赖于已经存在的等离子体来支撑导通，而不是等待由于引发而形成的等离子体形成通过保持活电极和器件的阴极之间的保持活电流产生和维持该等离子体。当在高阳极的条件下施加触发到阴极电压时，该等离子体形成阳极和阴极之间的主要传导的容易路径。

The fact that a conduction path is already established prior to triggering makes a huge difference in the commutation time of these devices compared to standard cold cathode trigger tubes. Commutation times below 1 nanosecond are achievable with Krytrons and the time lag between application of trigger and the commencement of switching may be less than 30ns with an optimized driver circuit. (Note this delay is largely due to the fact that the ionized path will need to spread from the keep alive terminal to the anode of the device) Compare this delay time to that seen in the standard trigger tube which is dependent upon many environmental factors and typically 3 or 4 orders of magnitude greater. Note that the variation in time delay exhibited by the krytron is almost totally independent of environment, however the time delay may be reduced up to a point with increasing trigger voltage. Likewise the commutation time is generally decreased if the rise time of the trigger pulse is also decreased. Given identical trigger pulses however a krytron will have a very similar time delay from one shot to the next. This variation is known as jitter and may be less than 5ns in optimal circumstances.

A Krytron contains a source of Beta radiation, Ni-63. The quantity in each device is less than 5 microcuries and presents no significant hazard. Usually the source is pulse welded to a piece of Nickel wire that is in turn welded to one of the electrode supports. The purpose of this source is to increase the reliability of the krytron by aiding the formation of the initial glow discharge between the keep alive and the cathode. This initial keep alive current is very much subject to environmental factors such as are seen in the formation of the glow discharge in standard trigger tubes. It is for this reason that a radioactive priming element is used, much as in the priming source employed in a standard trigger tube (which is also occasionally a radioactive source).

Krytrons typically come in a small glass envelope somewhat similar to a neon indicator bulb with more leads.

Krytrons require a high voltage pulse (500V to 2kV) to be applied to the trigger electrode to fire successfully. This pulse is almost always generated by a pulse transformer fired by a capacitor discharge in the primary (rather like a simple strobe tube firing circuit).

如果定期使用（通常是几百次拍摄）使用，krytron通常只有短暂的寿命（通常很少），但是当在适当的参数中使用，并且在预期的寿命中使用它们非常可靠，不需要热身并免于免疫many environmental factors to a large extent (e.g. vibration, temperature, acceleration).

这些属性与小尺寸相结合，使Krytron适用于某些类型导弹和智能炸弹的引爆电路。krytron可以直接用于射击高精度爆炸线，或者作为用于触发火花隙或类似的超高电流触发装置的触发电路的一部分，如用于爆炸箔片型雷管和更大的EBW电路。

Krytrons are used in firing circuits for certain lasers and flash tubes and also in some pulse welding applications, often as triggering devices for other larger devices such as Thyratrons and spark gaps.

2.3斯普里龙

The Sprytron, otherwise known as the Vacuum Krytron, is a device of very similar performance to the Krytron. Though it generally exhibits a somewhat lower time delay after triggering. The Sprytron is designed for use in environments were high levels of radiation are present. The sprytron is a hard vacuum ‘filled’ device unlike the krytron which, as noted above contains a low pressure gas.

斯普里龙只有三个引线（没有保持活力），但在krytron外面的施工中是非常相似的。使用真空填充的原因几乎肯定肯定没有存在来自外部环境的辐射以电离的介质（这种电离可以促进杂散的触发效果。）

The Sprytron requires a more powerful trigger pulse than the Krytron, as the device works by forming an arc directly between the trigger and the cathode, which causes the tube to breakdown (go into conduction) by disrupting the field between the anode and cathode.

斯普里龙以类似的方式触发到krytron，但如上所述，需要更高的能量触发脉冲，因此更强大的触发变压器等。例如，更强大的触发变压器等使触发变压器优化用于各种管子，并且还制作名为Krytron-PAC的设备将燃气填充的Krytron和触发变压器夹住在一个外壳中。

One final point. It is interesting to note that in application circuits(references 1 and 4) the sprytron is always shown directly switching a load (an Exploding bridge Wire.) and a Krytron is always shown triggering a secondary device such as a triggered spark gap.

2.4 Thyratrons.

Thyratrons有几种品种。所有工作类似地与Emircredardiond晶闸管，一个差异是在许多设计中（氢叔雷罗朗是一个常见的例外），栅极必须在关闭状态下偏置高度负，然后偏置正为实现切换。与晶闸管一样，胸衣像锁定开关一样操作，即。一旦将它们打开，您只能通过将电源切割到主电路时关闭。汞填充的Thyratrons是最慢的，最有用的类型，并且比其他类型更受限制，主要是由于汞冷凝的问题。它们很少使用，因为它们的晶闸管很少。氢叔雷罗朗斯比晶体管更快的开关更快。有些人可以在20ns下实现换向。与汞填充装置相比，惰性气体填充往往提供卓越的性能，而无需匹配填充器件的速度。

Note that Hydrogen Filled Devices employ a hot cathode.
与我们所看到的其他设备相比，迁移的实际物理施工/操作非常杂起，并且不会尝试解释它的操作。建议读者咨询各种书籍作为采用不同填充的设备，或者电极加热方法无用。尤其重要的是考虑此处的所有这些变化，因为这仅仅是这些设备的概述，而不是旨在成为主题上的最终词。然而，为了区分Thyratron形式的其他类似装置并至少在这里至少一些物理方式定义它，因此Frungel的（Ref.4）定义：

“通过术语”蜂王龙“是指排出室，其布置在阴极，一个或多个栅极和阳极，并且填充有惰性气体或金属蒸汽。'

Some Thyratrons can handle up to 50kV(double gap types) switch thousands f Amperes and handle very high power outputs( e.g. CX 1154 can handle peak powers of 40MW). Typical applications are Radar pulse modulators, Particle accelerators, Lasers and high voltage medical equipment. Another variety of thyratron is filled with Deuterium. These Deuterium filled devices are similar to their Hydrogen filled counterparts but the sparking potential for Deuterium is higher thus allowing even higher voltages to be handled.

E.g. E3213 can switch 70kV (double gap type). Specialist Thyratrons with ceramic and metal bodies are encountered. These are designed to be used in extreme environmental conditions. There is a wide variety of grid configurations seen in Thyratrons, it would be impractical to consider them all here. Manufacturers of Thyratrons Include EG&G, GEC, English Electric Valve Co. Ltd, M-O Valve co. Ltd. Big Thyratrons often require you to get a big box full of driver/control circuitry. Prices vary from a couple of dollars to thousands. Hot and cold cathode type devices are encountered.

Note these ratings are the exception rather than the rule in Thyratron devices, devices designed for sub kilovolt voltages and only capable of handling a few tens of amps pulsed are common enough.

Thyratrons typically come in either small multi pin base type packages such as are common in other vacuum tubes or in the case of the higher current devices large tubular packages with hefty end connectors.

2.5过电压火花隙

过电压火花隙基本上只是两个电极，之间的间隙。当两个电极之间的电压超过气体的击穿电压时，器件弧形并非常快速地建立电流。在这些器件中发生电弧的电压由动态击穿电压给出，该电压是设备将用于快速上升脉冲电压的电压。注意，该电压可以高于静态击穿电压的1.5倍（用于缓慢上升电压的击穿电压。）实际击穿电压的静态击穿电压将几乎完全取决于电压的快速效果。上升，较短的上升时间意味着更高的击穿电压。这些设备的换向次数特别低（有时小于1NAnosecond）。

过压空隙主要用于保护。但与此处提到的其他装置相结合，它们通常用于锐化非常高电流脉冲的输出脉冲（减小升高时间）触发的开关器件。Thyratrons。

The size of these devices is almost entirely dependent upon how much current/voltage they are intended to switch, There is really no limit as to the size of these devices they can be as small as krytrons, however they can also be very big, and devices intended to switch MA will be just that.

2.6触发火花隙

The triggered spark gap is a simple device, a high voltage trigger pulse applied to a trigger electrode initiates an arc between anode and cathode. This trigger pulse may be utilized within the device in a variety of ways to initiate the main discharge. Different spark gaps are so designed to employ one particular method to create the main anode to cathode discharge. The different methods areas follows…

触发火花隙电极配置：

  • 场失真：三个电极;采用在创建导电路径中的点放电（实际上尖锐的边缘）效应
  • 辐照：三个电极;火花源在阳极和阴极之间激发电子的照明等离子体。
  • Swinging cascade: three electrodes; trigger electrode nearer to one of the main electrodes than the other.
  • 中间平面：三个电极;基本触发火花隙与触发电极集中定位。
  • Trigatron：触发到一个电极电流形成等离子体，这些等离子体延伸以包括阳极和阴极之间的路径。

The triggered Spark gap may be filled with a wide variety of materials, the most common are…

  1. Air
  2. SF6
  3. Argon
  4. Oxygen

通常采用上述材料的混合物。然而，一些火花间隙实际上采用液体甚至是固体介质填充物。坚固的填充器件通常设计用于单次使用（它们仅使用一次，然后它们被销毁）设计了一些固体填充器件，用于切换10TW（100000000 000瓦）的功率，例如在极其强大的电容库放电中遇到的。除了在固体填充装置的情况下（显然），介质通常会通过火花隙泵送。一些较小的间隙不使用此系统。

Usually Gas filled spark gasp operate in the 20-100kV / 20 to 100kA range though much higher power devices are available. I have one spec for a Maxwell gas filled device that can handle 3 MA – that’s 3 Million Amperes! But then it is the size of a small car!! More commonly gas filled devices have dimensions of a few inches. Packages are often shaped like large ice pucks though biconical, tubular and box like structures are also seen.

Sparkgaps are often designed for use in a certain external environment(eg. they might be immersed in oil). A system for transmitting the media to the appropriate part of the device may sometimes be included. Common environments used are:

  • Air
  • SF6
  • 油

Typical spark gap device no.’s are: TG7, TG113, TG 114 etc. etc.

Spark gaps are damaged by repeated heavy discharge. This is an inevitable consequence of such high discharge currents. Electrode pitting being the most common form of damage. Between 1 and 10 thousand shots per device is usually about what is permissible before damage begins to severely degrade performance.

EG＆G使微型触发的火花间隙专为防御应用而设计。这些器件的物理上小于正常火花间隙（少厘米典型的尺寸），设计用于爆炸箔片型雷管。

激光切换火花间隙。切换触发火花隙的最快方法是具有强烈的激光脉冲，其在电极之间产生极其快速的等离子体。采用这种方法已经有很多设计，主要是在等离子研究区域。

Triggered spark gaps tend to have long delay times than Thyratrons (their chief competitor, at least at lower energies) However once conduction has started it reaches a peak value exceptionally rapidly (couple of nanoseconds commutation.)

2.7 Ignitrons

The ignitron is mercury vapor rectifier in which an arc is switched between a (usually graphite) anode and a mercury pool cathode. The discharge is initiated by an ignitor electrode which dips into the mercury pool cathode.

在施加适用于该点火器的适当的脉冲电流/电压，在点火器与池接触的点处形成电子发射源。这引发了阳极和阴极之间的电弧。

It is important that the ignitor should be triggered correctly. The ignitor requires a certain energy for successful ignition and also an ‘ignitor characteristic’ application of this energy in terms of current and voltage with respect to time. Misfiring or ignitor damage will otherwise occur. It is also vital that no significant negative voltage should appear at the ignitor with respect to the cathode else ignitor destruction will be the inevitable result.

触发器可以偏置两种主要方式：

Anode excitation: common in resistance welding applications here the anode bias is connected to the ignitor by means of a switch (thyristor, thyratron etc.) and a resistor/fuse network. The ignitor current drops rapidly on ignition as the anode-cathode voltage drops very low during conduction.

Separate excitation: as the name suggests, here the ignitor circuit is largely independent of the main circuit.

Ignitrons are often used in parallel for AC power control applications.

Ignitrons must often be cooled when used continuously (ie. Not single shot as in capacitor discharge) Water cooling is commonly employed. It is vital that Ignitrons must be used in the correct temperature range to hot or to cold can be very bad news for these devices- (cold leads to mercury vapor condensing on the anode.)

引燃管是非常有限的关于他们的物理ical orientation. This reason being simple that they rely upon a pool of liquid at one end of the device that must be correctly positioned for the ignitor to function correctly. Positioning the device so that it leans over at an angle of more than 2 or 3 degrees from the vertical is fatal.

大多数叉子在5安培和100ka之间的大多数电流运行，并且可能适用于从几百到20 000伏的电压。

Thyratrons and Krytrons are sometimes used in ignitron triggering circuits along with the familiar thyristor.

Ignitrons are suited to applications were power control of high voltages or currents is required. Welding is probably the most common application.

3.0固态设备

(注意这一部分很可能很大
expanded following further research by the author.)

现在市场上有一些商业晶体管，可以切换数十只KV。还有一些晶体管，可以处理5ka以上的脉冲电流。这些设备可以在电气性能方面匹配ExplateKrytrons和Sprytrons，但不是在尺寸和（在斯普里仑的情况下）辐射硬度。

晶闸管广泛应用，设计可以在几kV下处理10ka脉冲。然而，它们是非常慢的开关装置，并且不能实现甚至低微秒的切换速度。

A new class of devices is at present showing great promise in the R&D sector. These devices are optically (usually LASER) switched devices employing GaAs or Diamond film technologies. The reader is advised to
consult the appropriate reference below for more information relating to these devices.

读者的最终注意事项：

由于其军事应用，我提到的一些设备受到严格的控制。然而，以任何方式限制或控制的非上述信息。对于受双重使用指南限制的清晰性切换设备如下:(礼貌橡木凭证国家实验室）

(a) Cold-cathode tubes (including gas krytron tubes and vacuum sprytron tubes), whether gas filled or not, operating similarly to a spark gap, containing three or more electrodes, and having all of the following characteristics:

  1. Anode peak voltage rating of 2500 V or more;
  2. Anode peak current rating of 100 A or more;
  3. Anode delay time of 10 microsecond or less; and

（b）触发的火花间隙具有15微秒或更小的阳极延迟时间，额定电流为500°或更大;

（c）模块或组件具有快速切换功能，具有以下所有特征：

  1. Anode peak voltage rating greater than 2000 V;
  2. anode peak current rating of 500 A or more; and
  3. turn-on time of 1 microsecond or less.

Acknowledgements:

I would like to thank the following for their help and assistance:

Carey Sublette为提供大量的帮助和鼓励。

Roy Schmaus为此信息提供原始网站。

References: (in alphabetical order by title)

EG&G Catalogues/ Material. (RE: Components)

2) Exploding Wires Vol. 4, Proc. of 4th Conf. on the Exploding Wire Phenomena. Ed. Chace and Moore -Plenum Press (RE: EBW’s)

3.) High Power Optically Activated Solid State Switches,
ed. Rosen And Zutavern- Artech House (RE: Solid state devices)

4.) High Speed Pulse Technology by Frank Frungel -Academic Press.(RE: EBW’s, FCG’s, components)

5) High Velocity Impact Phenomena by Ray Kinslow-Academic Press.(RE: Foil Slappers)

IEEE publications (please contact author for more details).

Maxwell目录。（RE：火花隙）

8.) Mullard Valves and Tubes Book 2 Part 3 (RE: components)

有关主题的进一步信息将受到作者的欢迎。

关于作者:我不是一个费用rt in any of the above technologies and I will welcome any corrections. However please could anyone providing information also provide references to either the material they present or as to themselves so that their contribution may be given due weight.

任何想要与我联系（作者）的人，无论何种原因都应该邮寄：

约翰帕斯利

Disclaimer: I the author assume no responsibility for anyone who injures/kills themselves trying to implement any of the above technologies.

High voltages are generally exceptionally dangerous, and none of the above is intended or should be used to provide instruction in the correct procedures for building or constructing high voltage circuitry of any description. High voltage is used here to describe any voltage which may cause death i.e. anything above 50V.